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ISIJ International Advance Publication

ISIJ International
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ONLINE ISSN: 1347-5460
PRINT ISSN: 0915-1559
Publisher: The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan

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  1. Vol. 65 (2025)

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  2. Vol. 64 (2024)

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  11. Vol. 55 (2015)

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  12. Vol. 54 (2014)

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  35. Vol. 31 (1991)

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  36. Vol. 30 (1990)

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Surface defect detection of continuous casting slabs based on deep learning

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Analogous Water Modelling of an Asymmetric Multiple Strand Tundish Using Turbulence Inhibitors and Bubble Diffusers

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Analogous Water Modelling of an Asymmetric Multiple Strand Tundish Using Turbulence Inhibitors and Bubble Diffusers

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The investigation into the impact of the spatial arrangement of MMI desulfurization bubble clusters on molten iron fluctuations using the VOF method

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The investigation into the impact of the spatial arrangement of MMI desulfurization bubble clusters on molten iron fluctuations using the VOF method

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Structure of Metallic Iron Formed in Iron Ores by CO-H2 Reduction

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Low Temperature Reduction Disintegration Mechanism of Self-fluxing Pellet under High Hydrogen Condition of Blast Furnace at 500℃

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Low Temperature Reduction Disintegration Mechanism of Self-fluxing Pellet under High Hydrogen Condition of Blast Furnace at 500℃

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Analysis of Softening–Melting Behavior of Sinters and Their Packed Bed Considering Internal Structure Particles - Part 1: Convergence Simulation Reflecting Sinter Structure Obtained by X-ray Computed Tomography

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Analysis of Softening-Melting Behavior of Sinters and Their Packed Bed Considering Internal Structure Particles -Part 2: Direct Evaluation of Packed Bed Deformation and Gas Permeability

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Analysis of Softening-Melting Behavior of Sinters and Their Packed Bed Considering Internal Structure Particles -Part 2: Direct Evaluation of Packed Bed Deformation and Gas Permeability

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Atomic Ionic-scale Mechanism on Inclusion Modification by Calcium Treatment in the Electroslag Remelting Process based on Ion and Molecule Coexistence Theory and Molecular Dynamics Simulation

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DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-346

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In-situ Observation of Sintering Interface between Al2O3 Particle / Single Crystalline Al2O3 Plate through Single Crystalline Al2O3 Plate

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DOI:

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Hydrogen embrittlement phenomena from incubation stage to fracture associated with strain-induced vacancy-hydrogen complexes in iron

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Molecular Dynamics Analysis of the Mg2+ Structure Behavior in SiO2-CaO-Al2O3-MgO Slag System

Peiyao Guo, Shiyan Jiao, Feichi Chen, Yi Min, Chengjun Liu

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-286

Abstract

In order to analyze the structural behavior of Mg2+ in the slag and the difference of structural behavior with Ca2+, this paper examines the variation rule of microstructure of SiO2-CaO-Al2O3-MgO slag system with the increase of MgO/CaO ratio by molecular dynamics simulation. The results indicate that in the system, Mg2+ can exist can exist in three coordination forms when combined with oxygen: 4, 5, and 6. It can form ionic bonds with anions to exist as a network modifier, and it can also participate in network formation by forming [MgO4] tetrahedra through Mg-O covalent bonds. Under the condition of constant SiO2 and Al2O3 content, as the MgO/CaO ratio increases, the proportion of MgIV in the slag first increases and then decreases, with a turning point at 30.25%. In contrast, the MgVI ratio shows a decrease followed by an increase, with a minimum value of 17.33%. Ca2+ in the system mainly exists as a network modifier, and its modifying effect first decreases and then increases with the increase of MgO/CaO ratio. The stability of the Si-O and Mg-O tetrahedral structures changes little with the increase in Mg2+ content, while the stability of the Al-O tetrahedral structure decreases, and AlIV gradually transforms into higher coordinated Al. The content of bridge oxygen and the high polymerization degree structural units increase with the addition of Mg2+, leading to an increase in the melt polymerization degree.

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Molecular Dynamics Analysis of the Mg2+ Structure Behavior in SiO2-CaO-Al2O3-MgO Slag System

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Changes in the heterogeneous deformation structure and texture with cold rolling reduction in {110}<110> oriented coarse grained 3% silicon steel

Tesshu Murakawa, Hiroshi Fujimura, Kenichi Murakami, Kohsaku Ushioda

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-170

Abstract

We systematically investigated changes in crystal orientation due to the cold rolling of a {110}<110> single crystal, which had not been researched to date, in a reduction range of 10–70%. The results allowed for a classification of the changes into the following three reduction cases. The first was a 10–20% reduction. For this reduction, there was almost no change in the matrix orientation, and a shear band slightly appeared near the surface layer. The second was a 30–50% reduction, at which many shear bands were introduced, and the crystal orientation inside the shear bands was rotated from the initial {110}<110> orientation to the {100}<001> orientation around the TD axis. There are cells in the shear band. And {100}<001> orientation cells are considered having lower strain than around cells to having lower GAM. Additionally, the {111}<211> orientation was also confirmed in a small area that was thought to be surrounded by shear bands. The third was a 60–70% reduction, at which the matrix rotated to {111}<110>, but there were some areas with a {111}<211> orientation. Furthermore, the shear bands increased with increasing reduction, and more inner orientations were observed for {111}<211> than for {100}<001>. {111}<211> bands and {100}<001> bands are considered different origins to change discontinuously.

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Changes in the heterogeneous deformation structure and texture with cold rolling reduction in {110}<110> oriented coarse grained 3% silicon steel

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Prediction and Sensitivity Analysis of decarburization layer based on Functional Kernel Fisher Discriminant Analysis and Extended Morris Method

Junkui Lu, Xiaohan Cui, Fei He

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-177

Abstract

As a representative of high-speed wire, cord steel has the advantages of high strength, high toughness and so on, and is widely used in transportation and other industries. Decarburization layer is one of the key factors affecting the quality of cord steel products. Excessive thickness of decarburized layer leads to the decrease of fatigue strength and wear resistance of the material, which affects the service life and performance stability of the product. The decarburization process is affected by many factors such as heating temperature, holding time, and the interaction between the factors makes the thickness of the decarburization layer difficult to be accurately controlled. In this paper, an online prediction model of decarburization layer based on functional kernel Fisher discriminant analysis (FKFDA) method is constructed, and an extended Morris screening method is proposed. First, scalar data and multivariable time series data are combined, and then a nonlinear classification model is constructed using FKFDA to establish the corresponding relationship between heterogeneous production data and actual decarburization layer. Then, the proposed FKFDA method is applied to the actual cord steel production dataset. The accuracy of the proposed method is 75.6%, and the G-mean value is 0.722 on the cord steel production dataset, which has higher prediction accuracy than other methods. Finally, the extended Morris method based on the curve shape change is proposed to get the key factor affecting the decarburization layer, and the results are consistent with the actual situation.

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Prediction and Sensitivity Analysis of decarburization layer based on Functional Kernel Fisher Discriminant Analysis and Extended Morris Method

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Reaction-diffusion kinetics modelling of coke gasification in simulated H2 reduction blast furnace

Behnaz Rahmatmand, Salman Khoshk Rish, Hannah Lomas, Lauren North, Tom Honeyands, Arash Tahmasebi

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-300

Abstract

Introducing hydrogen gas into the blast furnace to partially substitute pulverised coal or coke, is a promising solution to decrease CO2 emissions of ironmaking process. However, increased H2O concentration alters the thermal and chemical conditions in the furnace, impacting the gasification reaction rate and degradation mechanism of coke. This research developed a modified random pore model (RPM) to integrate internal diffusion and interfacial chemical reaction processes, aiming to study reaction mechanisms and structural changes in coke under simulated conventional and H2-enriched blast furnace conditions. High-temperature thermogravimetric analysis was used to evaluate the gasification of coke lumps with varying initial quality. The experiments were performed isothermally between 1173-1473 K. Results indicated that coke reactivity in an H2-rich environment is up to 1.5 times higher than the conventional case. Moreover, low CRI coke exhibited a lower reaction rate in the H2-rich case, indicating the importance of coke quality for modified blast furnace operations. Modelling results showed that in the conventional blast furnace case, reactions occur more uniformly across the coke radius, indicating that chemical reaction is the dominant mechanism. In contrast, in the H2-rich blast furnace case, gas diffusion becomes the dominant rate limiting factor at higher temperatures (i.e., 1473 K), leading to higher mass loss near the coke surface and leaving a less-reacted core. These effects are more pronounced in low CRI coke due to its lower diffusivity coefficient. The results suggest that low CRI coke in an H2-rich blast furnace helps minimise coke degradation and maintain structural integrity.

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Reaction-diffusion kinetics modelling of coke gasification in simulated H2 reduction blast furnace

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Producing high purity metallic iron from bauxite residue through hydrogen reduction followed by flux smelting

Manish Kumar Kar, Jafar Safarian

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-341

Abstract

The effective management and utilization of bauxite residue poses a significant challenge for the alumina industry, especially given the escalating demand for aluminum. This investigation focuses on utilization of bauxite residue to produce high-purity iron and the creation of leachable calcium aluminate slag through processes involving hydrogen reduction and smelting. Bauxite residue was pelletized and then underwent reduction at 1000 °C in the presence of hydrogen. The resulting reduced bauxite residue was subsequently milled and blended with varying percentages of CaO, followed by smelting at 1500 °C to recover iron and a leachable calcium aluminate slag. Analytical techniques such as X-ray diffraction, Electron Probe Microanalysis, scanning electron microscopy, and X-ray fluorescence were employed to assess the phases, microstructure, and chemical compositions. The hydrogen reduction process successfully transformed iron oxide in the bauxite residue into metallic iron. The increasing amounts of CaO in smelting led to the dominance of the calcium aluminate (CaO·Al2O3) phase in the slag products, with the phase composition remaining relatively stable after reaching a 40% CaO content. Key phases identified in the smelted slag included CaO·Al2O3, Ca2Al2SiO7, and CaTiO3. Notably, the iron produced during smelting exhibited a purity exceeding 99.5%, comparable to electrolytic iron. Experimental analysis revealed a positive correlation between the purity of iron and the concentration of CaO in the slag melt. Only a minimal amount of iron, primarily in the form of FeO, was observed in the slag, a phenomenon corroborated by Factsage analysis.

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Producing high purity metallic iron from bauxite residue through hydrogen reduction followed by flux smelting

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Effect of temperature on reaction and degradation behaviors during CO2 and H2O gasification reactions of coke in same conversion ratio

Zhenjie Zheng, Yasuaki Ueki, Ichiro Naruse

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-344

Abstract

The efficiency of blast furnaces is adversely affected by coke degradation via gasification. Considering the utilization of hydrogen-enriched blast furnaces, it is essential to investigate the reaction and degradation behaviors of coke at different temperatures. In this study, coke gasification experiments were conducted under CO2 and H2O atmospheres at different temperatures to prepare cokes with a conversion ratio of 0.2. The reaction rate of the H2O gasification reaction was higher than that of the CO2 gasification reaction at the same temperature. The activation energies for CO2 and H2O gasification were 150.2 and 126.0 kJ/mol, respectively. After gasification, the shrinkage ratio was low by H2O gasification at 1273 K and increased with increasing temperature, indicating that the surface reaction became the control factor that consumed the coke matrix with increasing temperature. On the other hand, the shrinkage ratio by CO2 gasification tended to be stable from 1273 to 1673 K. Furthermore, the increase in the porosity of coke by H2O gasification was lower than that by CO2 gasification at higher temperatures. In addition, the strength of the coke via H2O gasification was higher than that of the coke via CO2 gasification.

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Effect of temperature on reaction and degradation behaviors during CO2 and H2O gasification reactions of coke in same conversion ratio

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Effect of initial microstructures on grain refinement by burnishing

Yoshinori Amano, Takahisa Suzuki, Kaori Kawano

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-375

Abstract

The development of ultrafine grained microstructures under severe plastic deformation by burnishing process was investigated using spherical cementite-ferrite (SA) steel and pearlite (P) steel of AISI 52100. Microstructures were analyzed using FE-SEM, FE-TEM and EBSD observations. In the SA steel, equiaxed ultrafine ferrite grains were formed at the burnished surface where the equivalent strain was about 3.9. These ultrafine grains were formed by continuous dynamic recrystallization because they consisted of high angle grain boundaries. On the other hand, in the P steel, the initial lamellar structure was maintained even at the equivalent strain about 4.3, and ferrite grains with a large aspect ratio were formed. These ferrite grains were considered to be non-recrystallized grains because the KAM value within these grains was high. In addition, many dislocation contrasts in the same direction were observed within a ferrite grain by FE-TEM observation. These results suggested that active dislocation slip system in these ferrite grains is limited by lamellar structure. As the strain increased by repeated burnishing process, these ferrite grains of P steel became coarse and the KAM value within these grains decreased. In addition, several dislocation contrasts in multiple directions were observed within a ferrite grain. It can be concluded that the limitation of active dislocation slip system in these ferrite grains were relaxed, and dynamic recovery was occurred in these ferrite grains.

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Effect of initial microstructures on grain refinement by burnishing

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Characterization of the three-dimensional pore structure of coke using the maximal ball method

Daisuke Igawa, Shohei Matsuo, Yohsuke Matsushita, Hideyuki Aoki, Hideyuki Hayashizaki, Yasuhiro Saito

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-365

Abstract

The three-dimensional pore structure and strength characteristics of two types of coke, Coke CC (produced from caking coal) and Coke LC (produced from low-quality coal), were assessed employing the maximal ball (MB) method and the finite element method (FEM). The MB analysis showed that Coke LC demonstrated larger and more connected pores, characterized by a higher coordination number, indicating greater pore connectivity. The FEM stress analysis showed that Coke LC displayed a less uniform matrix, leading to localized stress concentrations and increased anisotropy in the elastic modulus. These findings indicate that the lower drum strength of Coke LC is because of its nonuniform pore structure and higher susceptibility to stress concentration. Multiple regression analysis confirmed that pore connectivity, quantified by the coordination number, significantly impacts coke strength, with higher coordination numbers (greater than 8) being associated with increased elastic modulus. These results underscore the importance of a uniform, highly interconnected pore structure in enhancing coke strength, offering valuable insights for optimizing coke production to improve its mechanical properties.

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Characterization of the three-dimensional pore structure of coke using the maximal ball method

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Simulation and Application of Top-blowing Lance with Various Inclination Angles in Decarburization Ladle Furnace

Fuhai Liu, Yayu Wu, Sibao Zeng, Rong Zhu, Kai Dong, Guangsheng Wei, Yitong Pan

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-311

Abstract

To reduce the production costs of ultra-low carbon steel, an oxygen lance has been employed in a 150 t decarburization ladle furnace. This study conducted both water experiments and numerical simulations to examine the flow field characteristics and stirring effects of the top-blowing lance at various inclination angles of 4°, 6°, 8°, and 10°. The results indicated that a smaller inclination angle enhanced the mixing effect and impaction depth of the molten bath, whereas the impaction diameter exhibited a contrasting trend. The behavior of the oxygen multi-jets suggested that a smaller inclination angle mitigated the loss of kinetic energy, thereby improving impaction ability. As the depth of the molten bath increased, the average velocity of the molten bath section displayed a trend characterized by an initial rapid decrease, followed by a gradual decline, and culminating in a subsequent rapid drop. In industrial application research, the 4° oxygen lance resulted in a shorter decarburization time compared to the 8° oxygen lance. This reduction in decarburization time led to decreased heat energy loss due to the heat-absorbing effect of ambient gas, which further enhanced the end-point temperature of the molten bath.

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Simulation and Application of Top-blowing Lance with Various Inclination Angles in Decarburization Ladle Furnace

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Influence of Al2O3 on Softening-melting Behavior and Slag Characteristics of High Alumina Burden in Hydrogen-enriched Blast Furnaces

Junyu Chen, Buxin Chen, Jian Hou, Chenguang Bai, Liwen Hu, Meilong Hu

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-340

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of varying Al2O3 content in sinter on the softening-melting behavior, permeability, and slag characteristics of blast furnaces under hydrogen-injection conditions. Through softening-melting experiments of burden, viscosity and wetting testing of the slag. The results indicate that the increase in Al2O3 content first expands and then narrows both the softening and melting intervals. The addition of hydrogen significantly improves the permeability of the burden, attributed to the small molecular size of hydrogen and its influence on the slag composition. As Al2O3 content increases, the permeability of burden is improved due to liquid phase of the slag increases, the viscosity of the solid-liquid mixture decreases, and the wettability of the slag with coke decreases. When Al2O3 content of 2.48 wt% in sinter exhibits optimal permeability due to its low melting temperature and good fluidity of the slag. Overall, in gas-injection blast furnaces, high Al2O3 content in the burden results in a larger slag volume at elevated temperatures, lower viscosity of the solid-liquid mixture, and poor wettability with coke, which stabilizing the deterioration of permeability.

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Influence of Al2O3 on Softening-melting Behavior and Slag Characteristics of High Alumina Burden in Hydrogen-enriched Blast Furnaces

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Effect of basicity on the viscosity and phase structure of chromium-containing high-titanium blast furnace slag

Zhenyun Tian, Jialong Kang, Liu Yang, Jian Wang, Guibao Qiu

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-308

Abstract

Vanadium-titanium magnetite boasts a formidable storage capacity within China, particularly illustrated by the Hongge ore, amounting to an astounding 1.829 billion tons ripe for extraction. Nevertheless, the intricate mineral composition of the Hongge ore, which exhibits an extraordinary concentration of Cr2O3, presents significant challenges for its effective utilization. To date, only preliminary explorations have been undertaken on the Hongge ore, and investigations into its ore phase composition, as well as the processes of beneficiation and smelting, remain decidedly limited. This study undertakes a theoretical and experimental investigation of the viscous flow characteristics of the CaO-SiO2-MgO-TiO2-Al2O3-Cr2O3 slag system, seeking to elucidate the impact of basicity on the viscous properties of the slag derived from Hongge ore. As the basicity increases, the slag's viscosity decreases, the activation energy for viscous flow initially increases and then decreases, while its melting temperature exhibits an upward trend. It is recommended that, when the Hongge ore is utilized as metallurgical raw material, the slag's basicity should not surpass 1.10.

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Effect of basicity on the viscosity and phase structure of chromium-containing high-titanium blast furnace slag

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Softening and Melting Behavior of Ferrous Burden in Hydrogen-rich Blast Furnace Blowing Break and Re-blowing

Qiang Li, Jing Song Wang, Guang Wang, Xue Feng She, Qing Guo Xue, Hai Bin Zuo

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-247

Abstract

Blast furnace blowing break and re-blowing is a regular operation in the smelting process, However, some blast furnace conditions fluctuate for a long time due to improper operation of blast furnace blowing break and re-blowing, and preventing rapid attainment of production capacity. This paper first analyzes the influence of hydrogen-rich on the cohesive zone. Subsequently, it simulates the conditions of ferrous burden during partial and complete tuyere blowing break under hydrogen-rich conditions, followed by re-blowing. The study explores the influence of these operational changes on the softening and melting behaviors of the ferrous burden. The results indicate that with a 10% hydrogen enrichment, the melting range of ferrous burden narrows and shifts to higher temperatures, improving the permeability of the burden. During partial tuyere blowing break, this promotes the reduction of the ferrous burden and the carburization of metallic iron, increasing the melting start temperature and decreasing the dropping temperature by 29°C, thereby narrowing the cohesive zone. Both maximum pressure difference (ΔPmax) and permeability index (S) values decrease. In contrast, with a complete tuyere blowing break, the dropping temperature of the ferrous burden gradually increases from 1459°C to 1478°C as the isothermal duration extends, widening the melting interval and leading to an increase in both ΔPmax and S values.

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Softening and Melting Behavior of Ferrous Burden in Hydrogen-rich Blast Furnace Blowing Break and Re-blowing

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Resourceful Utilization of Ironmaking Waste: Synthesis of Ti5Si3 Alloy from Titanium-Bearing Blast Furnace Slag

Zhongya Pang, Shun Chen, Zhenqiang Jiang, Chenyang Han, Xing Yu, Kai Zheng, Chaoyi Chen, Guangshi Li, Qian Xu, Xingli Zou, Xionggang Lu

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-282

Abstract

Titanium-bearing blast furnace slag (TBFS), a byproduct of ironmaking processes, has long been discarded as waste, resulting in the squandering of valuable resources such as titanium. The recovery and effective utilization of TBFS hold immense significance and importance. This study reports a direct electrolysis method for synthesizing Ti5Si3 alloy from a TBFS/SiO2 mixture in molten CaCl2 at 950 °C. A comprehensive investigation was conducted into the phase and morphological evolution during the electrolysis process, along with an analysis of the migration behavior of impurities such as Ca and Al present in TBFS. The synthesized Ti5Si3 alloy powder was systematically characterized and analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and other techniques. The results reveal that the electrolysis process encompasses electrochemical deoxidation, in-situ alloying, and self-purification. Furthermore, this study achieved further purification of the Ti5Si3 alloy through vacuum laser rapid melting, effectively volatilizing and removing the residual impurity elements, resulting in an increase in the purity of Ti5Si3 alloy from 96.8% to 98.6%. The resultant Ti5Si3 alloy exhibits excellent corrosion resistance in phosphate buffer solution. In summary, this work provides a crucial technical paradigm and scientific theoretical foundation for the resourceful and value-added utilization of ironmaking solid waste, specifically TBFS.

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Resourceful Utilization of Ironmaking Waste: Synthesis of Ti5Si3 Alloy from Titanium-Bearing Blast Furnace Slag

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Transition behavior of gas containing suspension from solid-like to liquid-like flows

Kento Nakanishi, Takumi Kami, Takehiro Sumita, Noritaka Saito, Kunihiko Nakashima

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-223

Abstract

Gas permeability in a blast furnace is maintained via a layered structure comprising iron ore and a coke bed. High temperatures may induce a breakdown of this layered structure, and hence, an understanding of the transition from solid-like deformation to liquid-like deformation is crucial for preventing the breakdown. In this study, the flow behavior analogous to that of a layered structure comprising iron ore and a coke bed with derived melts was examined using polyethylene beads and silicone oil. Oscillation and creep tests were conducted on analogous samples of polyethylene beads and silicone oil with viscosities similar to that of the slag melt. The samples were prepared by mixing at liquid-phase to solid-phase volume ratios of 10/90, 25/75, and 40/60. Air was present in the samples used herein. The transition between the solid-like and liquid-like flow was investigated via oscillation testing, and the flow behavior on long timescales was investigated via creep testing. The results of oscillation testing indicated that a larger strain is required for flow at an intermediate liquid fraction or greater liquid viscosity. The results of creep testing revealed that the sample deformation changes from decelerating to accelerating as the applied stress increases at higher or lower liquid-phase fractions. In contrast, at an intermediate liquid fraction, the sample deformation decelerated at a relatively higher stress. The number of liquid bridges may be the highest at an intermediate liquid fraction, and the force between the particles generated by the liquid bridges is expected to be the most significant.

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Transition behavior of gas containing suspension from solid-like to liquid-like flows

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Comparison of the viscoelastic properties and viscosity of suspensions determined by oscillation and creep testing

Kento Nakanishi, Takehiro Sumita, Noritaka Saito, Kunihiko Nakashima

DOI:

10.2355/isijinternational.ISIJINT-2024-078

Abstract

Knowledge of the viscoelastic properties of suspensions is essential for many industrial processes. Although oscillation and creep testing are widely used to measure the viscoelastic properties of complex fluids, few studies on the correlation between the viscoelastic properties measured using these methods have been published. This study aims to provide insights into the differences between these methods and determine which method is better suited for a particular application. The room-temperature viscoelastic properties of a suspension composed of polyethylene beads dispersed in a silicone oil matrix were measured by oscillation and creep testing and compared. The results of oscillation testing indicated that the suspension showed weakly elastic deformation, whereas the results of creep testing revealed that the suspension was relatively elastic, with the liquid phase showing lower viscosity. In addition, the viscosity measured by oscillation testing was lower than that measured by creep testing. When the imposed flow causes microstructural changes, such as when the shear flow and particle‒particle contact induce aggregation, the analyzed flow property considerably differs between testing methods.

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Comparison of the viscoelastic properties and viscosity of suspensions determined by oscillation and creep testing

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