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MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS Vol. 66 (2025), No. 1

ISIJ International
belloff
オンライン版ISSN: 1347-5320
冊子版ISSN: 1345-9678
発行機関: The Japan Institute of Metals and Materials

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  1. Vol. 66 (2025)

    1. No.1

  2. Vol. 65 (2024)

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キーワードランキング

25 Dec. (Last 30 Days)

MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS Vol. 66 (2025), No. 1

Atomistic Model Study on Magnetic Properties of Permanent Magnets—Treatment of Thermal Fluctuation and Thermal Effects, and Future Perspective—

Masamichi Nishino, Seiji Miyashita

pp. 1-16

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024132

抄録

We review atomistic spin model studies, a new approach for theoretical investigations, on magnetic properties of permanent magnets. In the atomistic modeling, the microscopic details of magnetic parameters and lattice structures are realistically considered, and the temperature effect, including thermal fluctuation, is properly treated based on statistical physics methods: Monte Carlo methods and stochastic Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation methods. We introduce how to treat thermal effects for static and dynamical properties using these methods. Focusing especially on neodymium permanent magnets, we discuss features of magnetization, domain wall, coercivity of a grain, nucleation and pinning fields, and dysprosium substitution effect, which were first elucidated with those methods.

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Al12.5Hf35Ti35Zr17.5 Alloy with Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure Designed from Al40Ti60 Alloy

Akira Takeuchi, Takeshi Wada

pp. 17-22

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024137

抄録

An Al12.5Hf35Ti35Zr17.5 alloy was experimentally examined to determine whether it can form a single hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure. The Al12.5Hf35Ti35Zr17.5 alloy was computationally selected through an Al12.5Hf40Ti47.5 alloy from a prototypical Al40Ti60 alloy. A characteristic of the Al40Ti60 alloy was utilized in the alloy design; it exhibits a single hcp structure in the temperature range of approximately 200 K, which is below the stable body-centered cubic structure. The Al12.5Hf40Ti47.5 and Al12.5Hf35Ti35Zr17.5 alloys were prepared experimentally using conventional arc melting. Furthermore, the Al12.5Hf35Ti35Zr17.5 alloy was annealed at 1600 K for 1 h, followed by water quenching. X-ray diffraction profiles revealed that the as-prepared Al12.5Hf40Ti47.5 alloy and both the as-prepared and annealed samples of the Al12.5Hf35Ti35Zr17.5 alloy formed an hcp structure. A single hcp structure was confirmed using scanning electron microscopy combined with elemental mapping via energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy for an annealed sample of the Al12.5Hf35Ti35Zr17.5 alloy. The calculated results for the Al12.5Hf35Ti35Zr17.5 alloy disagreed with the experimental results because of the incomplete reproducibility of the calculated phase diagram for the constituent Al–Hf system. The present results provide a method to derive a multi-component alloy with an hcp structure by compensating for the deficiencies in thermodynamic predictions.

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Discontinuous Precipitating Behavior for Cu-Ni-Si Alloy with Mn Addition

Seung Zeon Han, Eun-Ae Choi, Sung Hwan Lim, Satoshi Semboshi

pp. 23-28

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-D2024006

抄録

We investigated the age-induced precipitation behavior of a Cu-4.0 wt.% Ni-1.1 wt.% Si alloy with 0.7 wt.% Mn addition, in comparison to a Cu-4.7 wt.% Ni-1.1 wt.% Si alloy without Mn addition. In the Cu-Ni-Si alloy without Mn addition, fine orthorhombic δ-Ni2Si precipitates were dispersed within the matrix grains, while lamellar structures composed of δ-Ni2Si and Cu laminates were coarsely developed at the grain boundaries. On the other hand, in the Cu-Ni-Si alloy with Mn addition, a small amount of Mn6Ni16Si7 particles (commonly referred to as the G phase, having a cubic structure) with a size of less than 100 nm was formed at the grain boundaries, although the lamellar structures containing coarse δ-Ni2Si laminates had significantly disappeared. As a result, the decrease in hardness after peak-aging (over-hardening aging) was suppressed. DFT analysis revealed that adding Mn to the Cu-Ni-Si alloy reduces the interfacial energy between the G phase and the Cu matrix. This supports the experimental fact that Mn addition to Cu-Ni-Si alloys promotes the formation of G phase at grain boundaries.

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Effects of Cooling Rate on Hot-Cracking Susceptibility of Cu-Ni-Si Alloys

Yuki Muto, Kazuki Kammuri, Junji Miyake, Tetsusei Kurashiki, Hiroaki Mori

pp. 29-37

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024091

抄録

The hot-cracking susceptibility of Cu-Ni-Si alloys was quantitatively evaluated through an I-beam test for the first time. The test results of the two cooling conditions changed as functions of the mold temperature, and the minimum restraint distance necessary for hot cracking increased as the cooling rate decreased. The pressure drop in the liquid phase at the dendrite gap was calculated from the test results using the Rappaz–Drezet–Gremaud (RDG) model. By comparing the calculated pressure drop to the cavitation depression, the appropriate coalescence solid fraction to reproduce the experimental results was estimated to be 0.918–0.919 and 0.906–0.921 under rapid (21.8–21.9°C/s) and slow (4.1–6.9°C/s) cooling conditions, respectively. No significant difference was observed in the coalescence solid fraction, at which the dendrite branches merges, between the two cooling conditions used in this study.

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Effect of Cooling Rate on Microstructure, Phases, and Properties of Al-Si Coated Hot-Press-Forming Steel Sheets

Dong-Gyu Kim, Sanjaya Kumar Pradhan, Yeseul Na, Changwoo Nam, Min-Suk Oh

pp. 38-43

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024127

抄録

The evolution of various intermetallic layers and the formation of voids at the substrate/coating interface of hot-dip-aluminized (Al-9 wt% Si) hot-press-forming steel were systematically investigated using a field-emission scanning electron microscope and glow discharge optical emission spectrometer. Following austenitization at 900°C for 10 min, the substrate/coating interface of the air-cooled and quenched Al-Si coatings was characterized by the presence of Fe2SiAl2, Fe2Al5, and α-Fe(Al) layers. The results revealed that rapid cooling/quenching effectively restricts the diffusion of Al, Si, and Fe atoms, leading to the formation of fewer Kirkendall voids within the intermetallic and α-Fe(Al) layers, with a decreased thickness of the latter. Consequently, the quenched Al-Si coating exhibited increased Vickers hardness, indicating enhanced mechanical properties due to the higher cooling rate.

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Characterization of δNi2Si Precipitates in Cu-Ni-Si Alloy by Small-Angle X-ray Scattering, Small-Angle Neutron Scattering, and Atom Probe Tomography

Hirokazu Sasaki, Syunta Akiya, Kuniteru Mihara, Yojiro Oba, Masato Onuma, Jun Uzuhashi, Tadakatsu Ohkubo

pp. 44-49

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-D2024005

抄録

The strength of a Cu-Ni-Si alloy can be improved by finely dispersing Ni-Si-based compounds as precipitates into the Cu matrix through heat treatment. This requires quantitatively evaluating the size distribution and dispersion state to investigate the strengthening effect of the precipitate. In this work, we utilized transmission electron microscopy, small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), and atom probe tomography (APT) to analyze these Ni-Si precipitates. The APT results showed two types of diffusion layers at the interface between the Cu matrix and precipitates. The alloy contrast variation method was used to examine the difference in SAXS and SANS intensity in absolute units, which indicated that the δNi2Si precipitates are distorted.

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Visualization of Local Deformation in Metallic Materials through In Situ X-Ray Diffraction Mapping

Kazuya Tokuda, Kazuhiro Goto, Junji Iihara, Hiroki Adachi

pp. 50-55

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024130

抄録

We propose a novel method for the visualization of the shape and stress–strain evolution in the local deformation of metallic materials. We combined in situ X-ray diffraction with simultaneous transmittance measurements while scanning the specimen, to visualize the temporal evolution of the spatial distributions of thickness, stress, and inhomogeneous strain in the sample. Through a comparison of stress and strain distributions within the local deformation regions, it was demonstrated that work hardening is the dominant factor contributing to the increase in stress in the local deformation area of pure copper. This method is expected to contribute to the elucidation of local deformation in manufacturing processes.

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Inhibition of Copper Corrosion by Corrosion Inhibitors in the Presence of Scale Dispersants

Kaho Sugiura, Yuna Yamaguchi, Toyohiro Arima, Yuma Kano, Takato Sasaki, Itaru Ikeda, Takashi Iyasu, Yutaka Yamada, Osamu Sakurada

pp. 56-59

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-D2024004

抄録

We have been examined the suppression of pitting corrosion in copper tube used for heat transfer in cooling water systems with absorption chillers. The corrosion was caused by the relationship between the carbon film on the copper tube surface and the water quality flowing through the tube. Phosphonic acid, and benzotriazole (BTA) were used as water treatment chemical due to suppress pitting corrosion. We reported silicate ion and calcium ion are effective for the corrosion resistance of copper in the presence of phosphonic acid, and also studied the effect of pH and carbon film. In this study, BTA was added to the system containing these three factors, and the effect of BTA on the corrosion resistance of copper tubes was investigated using electrochemical measurements. As the concentration of BTA increased, the current density was suppressed and the BDP became larger. No significant difference was observed with pH, but there was a difference with and without carbon film. From these results, it was considered that corrosion inhibition is more effective with increasing BTA concentration.

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Distribution Behavior of Nickel, Cobalt, and Copper between Al2O3–Li2O–CaO Slag or Al2O3–Li2O–SiO2 Slag and Molten Ni–Co–Cu Alloy at 1623 K

Yu Yamashita, Junichi Takahashi, Katsunori Yamaguchi

pp. 60-65

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024120

抄録

The distribution of Ni, Co, and Cu between the Al2O3–Li2O–CaO slag or the Al2O3–Li2O–SiO2 slag and the Ni–Co–Cu alloy at 1623 K was investigated. In the oxygen partial pressure (pO2) range of 10−14 to 10−12, the distribution ratio, LX, of component X (X: Co, Ni, or Cu) between the Al2O3–Li2O–CaO slag and the molten Ni–Co–Cu alloy was LNi < LCu < LCo. The valences of Ni and Co in the Al2O3–Li2O–CaO slag system are mainly divalent, and that of Cu is mainly monovalent, as determined from the log pO2 dependence of log LX in the pO2 range of 10−14 to 10−12. The pO2 of the Al2O3–Li2O–CaO system is three to five orders of magnitude lower than that of the Al2O3–Li2O–SiO2 system and the previously reported slag system without Li2O, even though the distribution ratios (LNi, LCo, and LCu) are similar. The activity coefficients of Ni, Co, and Cu in the Al2O3–Li2O–CaO system are all lower than those in the Al2O3–Li2O–SiO2 system and the previously reported slag system without Li2O. In particular, [γCoO] is approximately two orders of magnitude lower.

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Preparation of Photocatalytic Coating Materials and Application in Prefabricated Buildings

Shikun Wang

pp. 66-75

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-N2024009

抄録

With the rapid development of the social economy and urbanization, urban environmental pollution has become increasingly serious. Green buildings that meet national standards have become a current focus. In order to improve the waterproof and self-cleaning properties of prefabricated building exterior walls, environmental purification technology is applied to prepare coatings with photocatalytic effects for cement-based materials of prefabricated building exterior walls. The results showed that when the titanium to silicon ratio was 10:1 and 10:2, the degradation rates of the material reached 99.42% and 99.01%, respectively. The adhesion strength of photocatalytic materials with different dosages was 1.80 MPa, 1.97 MPa, 1.74 MPa, and 1.75 MPa, respectively, which significantly improved the adhesion performance compared with the blank group. The water absorption of photocatalytic coatings was less than 0.10 kg/(m2 × h0.5), indicating good waterproof effect. In summary, the preparation of photocatalytic coating materials and their application in prefabricated buildings can effectively reduce maintenance cost, extend the service life of buildings, and provide scientific support and reference for green building projects. The innovation of the research lies in the first combination of environmental purification technology with prefabricated building exterior wall materials, proposing a new type of photocatalytic coating that can effectively improve the durability and self-cleaning ability of buildings. This provides a practical and feasible solution for reducing maintenance costs and extending the service life of buildings, and provides important scientific support and reference for the development of green building projects.

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Effect of Soil Moisture on Corrosion Behavior of Zinc in Simulated Soil Environment

Mizuki Miyauchi, Azusa Ooi, Eiji Tada

pp. 76-84

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-C2024005

抄録

Corrosion of zinc in simulated soil at various degrees of saturation Sr was investigated by performing surface observations, corrosion depth analyses, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and potentiodynamic polarization tests. The aim was to evaluate the effects of soil moisture on the corrosion morphology and corrosion rate of zinc. At a high soil moisture content (Sr > 80%), the mean zinc corrosion rate was low and varied little as Sr varied. However, at a low moisture content (Sr < 80%), the mean corrosion rate increased markedly as the moisture content decreased and reached a maximum at Sr ∼ 50%. The zinc corrosion morphology became more heterogeneous, indicating that the corrosion depth increased, as Sr decreased. The effects of soil moisture on the zinc corrosion morphology and rate were assessed from changes in oxygen reduction (cathodic reaction) and zinc dissolution (anodic reaction) in simulated soil.

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Effect of Crack Propagation on Residual Stress of Sheared Edge

Takashi Yasutomi, Yoshiaki Honda, Yuuji Sakiyama, Masahiro Nakata

pp. 85-92

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-P2024005

抄録

The purpose of this study is to clarify the effect of deformation during crack growth on the residual stress of sheared edges. By measuring the residual stress in the thickness direction of the sheared edge, the residual stress of the sheared edge on the scrap side was found to be larger than that on the product side. It was also found that this residual stress difference depends on the shearing clearance, and the difference becomes smaller with greater clearance. By experiments and numerical analysis, it was clarified that the difference in residual stress between the two sheared edges is due to the deformation caused by the Mode II growth of cracks. When the clearance is large, the growth of Mode I cracks increases and that of Mode II decreases, so it is considered that the stress difference between both edges becomes smaller.

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Solidification Sequence of High-Stiffness Al-14%Si-5.5%Ni-15%Cu-0.5%Mg Cast Alloy

Koki Takeya, Yusaku Sugawa, Hirofumi Miyahara, Keisaku Ogi

pp. 93-98

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.F-M2024811

抄録

Aluminum casting alloys are widely used for various machine parts for the purpose of weight reduction and energy saving. Because of the strong demands for high-stiffness Al alloy to improve their operating accuracy in the fields of precision machinery and robots, we have developed Al-12.5∼14%Si-5∼6%Ni-14∼15%Cu-0.5%Mg alloys with a stiffness of 100 GPa. The solidification sequence of this alloy was investigated to clarify the structural constituents that contribute to its higher stiffness. A series of quenched Al-14%Si-5.5%Ni-15%Cu-0.5%Mg samples were analyzed by optical microscope, EPMA and X-ray diffraction. The results revealed that the alloy solidifies in the order of primary Si, primary-like Ni2Al3, Al(α) + Si eutectic, Al(α) + Ni2Al3 eutectic, Al(α) + CuAl2 eutectic and Al(α) + Al4Cu2Mg7Si8 eutectic. Just after the crystallization of primary-like Ni2Al3, Al(α) hollow and α-dendrites developed around primary Si and Ni2Al3, since these primaries hardly nucleated the above eutectics. The thermodynamic calculation software used provides information on the solidification temperatures and volume fraction for primary Si, Ni2Al3, and other eutectic structures. However, it is unable to predict the appearance of Al(α) hollow and α-dendrites because these are non-equilibrium phenomena. In addition, some discrepancies were observed especially in the final stage of solidification. The evaluation performed by the thermodynamic calculation software using the Scheil’s equation provides details on the final solidification reactions similar to experiment findings.

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Effect of Nb Content on Mechanical Properties and Solidification Microstructure of Stabilized Ferritic Stainless Cast Steel

Rie Nishio, Takuo Umetani, Yasuhiko Nakamura, Chiharu Obata, Kaoru Yamamoto, Keisaku Ogi

pp. 99-106

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.F-M2024812

抄録

The effect of Nb content on the mechanical properties and solidification structure of stabilized ferritic stainless cast steel with a basic composition of 18%Cr–0.5%Cu–(0.35–1.1)%Nb–0.035%(C + N) was investigated. Tensile test results for specimens containing 0.35–0.45% Nb showed a tensile strength of 370–380 MPa, 0.2% proof stress of 270–280 MPa and elongation of 7–10%. However, as the Nb content increased to 1.1%, the 0.2% proof stress increased to 360 MPa and the elongation decreased significantly to 1%. In all specimens, Nb(C, N) particles were dispersed in the ferrite matrix, and the particle size became larger with increasing Nb content. Some continuous film-like Nb(C, N) appeared at grain boundaries in the 0.75% Nb sample and increased in the 1.1% Nb sample. These difference in Nb(C, N) distribution should affect the mechanical properties.

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Measurement of Laser Absorptivity of Inconel Powders with Additive Manufacturing Machine

Hiroshi Honda, Makoto Watanabe

pp. 107-112

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024124

抄録

The nickel-based superalloy Inconel is considered suitable for near-net-shape manufacturing using additive techniques, primarily due to its machining difficulties. In laser metal-based powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing, the laser absorptivity of metal powder is one of the parameters that must be known in order to elucidate, optimize, and numerically simulate manufacturing. Therefore, we tried to measure the laser absorptivities of Inconel 718 and Inconel 738LC powders using a commercially available additive manufacturing machine.

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Spectroscopic Analysis of Blue Diode Laser Induced Plume Generated by Welding of Pure Copper

Keisuke Takenaka, Mao Sudo, Shumpei Fujio, Masami Mizutani, Yuji Sato, Masahiro Tsukamoto

pp. 113-116

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-D2024002

抄録

Highly efficient and high quality pure copper welding with the blue diode laser, which has high optical absorption into pure copper, is expected to be realized. It is necessary to clarify the interaction between copper and laser beam when a blue diode laser is focused and irradiated on pure copper, and we focused on the blue diode laser-induced plume generated during copper welding. In this study, as a basic research to elucidate the interaction between the laser beam and the blue diode laser induced plume generated during welding of pure copper, spectroscopic analysis of the plume was performed to identify the plume constituent elements and their spatial distribution was experimentally clarified. The emission lines in the spectra were found to be Cu and CuO, indicating that the composition of the plume varies spatially.

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Investigation of the Cause of Serration Generation in Al-Mg Alloy Using In-situ XRD/DIC Simultaneous Measurement

Hiroki Adachi, Tatsuya Kitano, Masahiro Hirata, Daisuke Okai

pp. 117-122

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-L2024019

抄録

Type-B serrations were observed during room-temperature tensile deformation of Al-2.17 mass%Mg alloy with an average grain size of 12 µm. Digital image correlation was used to visualize Portevin-Le Chatelier (PLC) bands, and microstructural changes in these bands were observed by in-situ X-ray diffraction measurements using synchrotron radiation at SPring-8. The results indicated that the overall density of dislocations, including both mobile and pinned dislocations inside the PLC bands, increased substantially as the bands formed. This suggests that serration occurs due to an increase in the mobile dislocation density resulting from the formation of new dislocations from sources inside the PLC bands.

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Estimation of Punching Clearance in the Manufacture Process of Iron Cores

Kyohei Hayakawa, Takumi Hamaguchi, Isao Matsui

pp. 123-129

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024128

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The iron core of non-oriented electrical steel sheets is manufactured by punching, and the punching clearance greatly affects the amount of iron loss. Empirically, it is known that increasing the punching clearance, while extending the life of the die, introduces greater plastic deformation at the end of the iron core. This plastic deformation increases iron loss and decreases motor performance, making clearance a condition that must be controlled. On the other hand, punching clearance is proprietary information of the manufacturer and is not disclosed unless it is produced in-house. Against this background, we have developed an inspection method for estimating punching clearance, to better control the quality of iron cores. First, ring specimens were prepared using die with different clearances (0.6%–16.4%). Magnetic property evaluation for these ring specimens showed a linear relationship where iron loss increased with increasing clearance. The electron backscattering diffraction (EBSD) analysis pointed to the changes in strain introduction at the machining edge. Discussion of these data resulted in a calibrated relationship between clearance and kernel average misorientation (KAM). In addition, similar tests were performed on several grades of non-oriented electrical steel sheets to obtain a versatile calibration curve that takes in to account the effect of hardness. The results and discussion of this study demonstrate a new estimation technique that is expected to contribute to motor production management.

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Preparation of Nickel-Based Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-C60 Fullerene Nanowhisker Composite and Its Photocatalytic Degradation of Tetracycline Hydrochloride under UV Light Irradiation

Jeong Won Ko, Weon Bae Ko

pp. 130-135

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024121

抄録

Nickel-based zeolitic imidazolate framework (Ni-ZIF) nanoparticles were prepared by dissolving nickel nitrate hexahydrate (Ni(NO3)2·6H2O) and 2-methylimidazole (C4H6N2) in methanol (CH3OH) and stirring the resulting solution for 6 h at 60°C. The resulting precipitate was collected by centrifugation and dried at 60°C for 24 h to afford solid-state Ni-ZIF nanoparticles. Next, a Ni-ZIF-C60 fullerene nanowhisker (FNW) composite was prepared by liquid-liquid interfacial precipitation using a solution of Ni-ZIF nanoparticles, C60-saturated toluene, and 2-propanol (C3H8O). In comparison to the Ni-ZIF nanoparticles, the hybrid Ni-ZIF-C60FNW composite exhibited higher photocatalytic activity in the degradation of tetracycline hydrochloride under ultraviolet (UV) irradiation at 254 and 365 nm. The kinetics of the photocatalytic degradation of tetracycline hydrochloride using both the Ni-ZIF nanoparticles and the Ni-ZIF-C60FNW composite under UV irradiation followed the pseudo-first-order reaction rate law.

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Microstructures of SUS304 Stainless Steel after Long-Term Service in Vacuum Carburizing Quenching

Ngo Huynh Kinh Luan, Tetsuya Okuyama, Koreaki Koizumi

pp. 136-143

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024097

抄録

The microstructural changes and crack propagation in the carburized layer of SUS304 stainless steel due to repeated vacuum carburizing quenching as a heat treatment basket were investigated in this paper. As a result, beneath a graphite scale formed on the outermost surface, it was revealed that there were three types of carburized layers with different morphologies: M7C3 layer, M7C3/M23C6 mixed layer, and M23C6 layer (M = Cr, Mn, Fe). In addition, the surface was found to be uneven due to the occurrence of metal dusting. Besides, repeated heating and quenching caused the formation of voids in carbides and matrix in the carburized layer, and micro cracks appeared in the surrounding areas. Under the loading stress during vacuum carburizing quenching, these voids, micro cracks, and the uneven surface are considered to be the initial points for cracking.

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Review of “Integrated Computer-Aided Process Engineering Session in the 17th International Symposium on Novel and Nano Materials (ISNNM, 14–18 November 2022)”

Yeon-Joo Lee, Pil-Ryung Cha, Hyoung-Seop Kim, Hyun-Joo Choi

pp. 144-150

DOI:

10.2320/matertrans.MT-M2024133

抄録

“The 17th International Symposium on Novel and Nano Materials (ISNNM)” was held in Jeju, Korea from 14th to 18th November, 2022, and the proceedings for the session of “Integrated Computer-Aided Process Engineering (ICAPE)” were published in Feb, 2023, as a special issue of Materials Transactions (Vol. 64, No. 9). Following the first special issue, which covered the content of the ICAPE session at the International Symposium on Innovation in Materials Processing (ISIMP), this second special issue also presents various topics, including computational materials science, data-driven optimization, as well as experimental validation of optimized process. This article offers a concise overview of several key topics presented at the second special issue, including: macro-scale numerical analysis through finite element methods (FEM), and microstructure simulations using phase-field modelling (PFM), as well as various optimization methods such as machine learning (ML), artificial intelligence (AI), and design of experiments (DoE).

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